Despair looms large in Siberia, even as tempting new market opportunities beckon from the horizon. Siberia's plight is epitomised by Yakutia, which has the world's biggest coal fields, much of the oil of the former Soviet Union and a good bulk of its diamonds and tin reserves. Yet food is 3 times more expensive than in Moscow and development has flat-tyred to a standstill.
In Yakutsk, the largest city in Yakutia, there are hardly any paved streets, water pumps are the norm and the majority of people live in wooden outhouses. The conditions are so bad that many residents are desperate to leave.
Every trained person who can get a job somewhere else is leaving," says Yakutsk mayor Aleksei Tormosov. The Adjustmeni to new realities has been particularly painful for those in north Siberia, a vast expanse of tundra and permafrost. During Soviet times, revised maps erased the name entirely, in order to discourage Siberian regionalism.
About thirty-eight million Russians and native peoples inhabit that northern third of Asia. By contrast, the state of New Jersey, where I live, has nearly a quarter as many people on about. For most people, Siberia is not the place itself but a figure of speech.
Newspaper gossip columns take the word even more metaphorically. In this respect as in many others , Siberia and America are alike. Apart from their actual, physical selves, both exist as constructs, expressions of the mind.
Once when I was in western Russia, a bottler of mineral water was showing my two Russian companions and me around his new dacha outside the city of Vologda. The time was late evening; darkness had fallen.
The mineral-water bottler led us from room to room, throwing on all the lights and pointing out the amenities. When we got to the kitchen, he flipped the switch but the light did not go on. This seemed to upset him. He fooled with the switch, then hurried off and came back with a stepladder.
Mounting it, he removed the glass globe from the overhead light and unscrewed the bulb. He climbed down, put globe and bulb on the counter, took a fresh bulb, and ascended again.
He reached up and screwed the new bulb into the socket. After a few twists, the light came on. He turned to us and spread his arms wide, indicating the beams brightly filling the room. Nobody has ever formally laid out the boundaries of the actual, physical Siberia. Rather, they were established by custom and accepted by general agreement. Siberia is, of course, huge.
Three-fourths of Russia today is Siberia. Siberia takes up one-twelfth of all the land on earth. The United States from Maine to California stretches across four time zones; in Siberia there are eight.
The continental United States plus most of Europe could fit inside it. Across the middle of Siberia, west to east for thousands of miles, runs the Russian taiga, the largest forest in the world. The Urals also separate Europe from Asia. It is possible to drive over them, as I have done, and not know. In central Russia, the summits of the Urals average between one thousand and two thousand feet.
The Arctic Ocean borders Siberia on the north. For most of the year though less consistently than before , this line is obscured under ice. The land here for as much as two hundred and fifty miles in from the sea is tundra—a treeless, mossy bog for the months of summer, a white near-wasteland otherwise. In the south, Siberia technically ends at the border between Russia and Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and China, although Siberian watersheds and landforms continue on into them.
This region is mostly steppe. The steppes of Siberia are part of the great Eurasian steppe, which extends from almost the Pacific westward as far as the Danube. The steppes were why China built the Great Wall. Sakhalin Island, which almost touches the Russian coast north of Japan, is considered part of Siberia. The island was a prison colony during tsarist times. Six hundred miles east of Sakhalin, the peninsula of Kamchatka descends from the Siberian mainland, dividing the Sea of Okhotsk from the Bering Sea.
Among Russians, Kamchatka has served as a shorthand term for remoteness. Coincidentally, Kamchatka was the first geographic fact that many people my age in America knew about Siberia. I am of the baby-boom generation, who grew up during the Cold War. In our childhood, a new board game came out called Risk, which was played on a map representing the world. The object of Risk was to multiply your own armies, move them from one global region to the next while eliminating the armies of your opponents, and eventually take over the world.
This required luck, ruthlessness, and intercontinental strategizing, Cold War style. The armies were little plastic counters colored red, blue, yellow, brown, black, and green. Of the major global powers, you basically understood which color was supposed to stand for whom. On the Risk game board, the lines between regions and around continents were angular and schematic, after the manner of familiar Cold War maps having to do with nuclear war.
On the walls at think-tank strategy sessions and as illustrations for sobering magazine articles, these maps showed the arcs of nuclear missiles spanning the globe—theirs heading for us, ours heading for them. Almost all the missile arcs went over Siberia. As a landmass, Siberia got some bad breaks geographically.
I have seen each of these, and though the Mississippi may be mighty, they can make it look small. The fact that the tributary systems of these rivers interlock allowed adventurers in the seventeenth century to go by river from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean with only five portages. Seeking furs, these men had crossed all of Siberia in a hundred years, and built fortresses and founded cities along the way. In western Siberia, there are cities more than four hundred years old.
Even the Amur, whose general inclination is to the northeast and whose destination is the Pacific, empties into the stormy Sea of Okhotsk. This causes them to back up. This creates swamps. Western Siberia has the largest swamps in the world. The rivers of western Siberia flow so slowly that they hardly seem to move at all. There the rivers run muddy; in eastern Siberia, with its real mountains and sharper drop to the Pacific, many of the rivers run clear.
In general, then, much of Siberia drains poorly and is quite swampy. Of the mosquitoes, flies, and invisible biting insects I will say more later. They are a whole other story. Only on the sea can you travel as far and still be in apparently the same place. Summers in the interior of Siberia are hot, sometimes dry and dusty, sometimes hazy with smoke from taiga fires.
In the winters, temperatures drop to the lowest on the planet outside Antarctica. In the city of Verkhoyansk, in northeast-central Siberia, the cold reaches minus 68 degrees centigrade about minus 90 degrees Fahrenheit. When I mentioned this frequently noted Siberian fact to my friends and guides in St.
Petersburg, they scoffed, as Russians tend to do. Then they said they knew of someplace in Siberia even colder. Because of the cold, a lot of central Siberia and most of the east lies under permafrost—ground permanently frozen, sometimes to more than a thousand metres down. Permafrost also covers all the tundra region. Agriculture on any large scale is impossible in the permafrost zone, though in more forgiving parts of it people have kitchen gardens, and greenhouse farming occasionally succeeds.
Huge amounts of climate-changing methane would be released into the air. Cities and villages in the permafrost zone must have basic necessities brought in. Fuel comes in steel barrels that are about three feet high and hold fifty-three gallons. Around settled places these empty barrels are everywhere, sometimes littering the bare tundra surreally as far as you can see.
In , the Los Angeles Times estimated that in Chukotka, the part of farthest Siberia just across from Alaska, the Soviets had left behind about two million barrels, or about sixteen barrels for each person living there.
Fewer people, and probably more barrels, are in Chukotka today. What, then, is good about Siberia? Its natural resources, though hard to get at, are amazing. Its coal reserves, centered in the Kuznetsk Basin mining region, in south-central Siberia, are some of the largest in the world.
Siberia has supplied the Russian treasury with silver and gold since tsarist times; during the nineteen-thirties, the Kolyma region of eastern Siberia produced, by means of the cruellest mines in history, about half the gold then being mined in the world. A lot of those reserves are in Siberia.
Along the route of the Trans-Siberian Railway, trains of oil tank cars extend across the landscape for miles. Each tank car, black and tarry-looking, with faded white markings, resembles the one that follows it; slowly rolling past a grade crossing of the Trans-Siberian Railway, a trainload of these cars defines monotony.
The Trans-Siberian Railway covers nine thousand two hundred and eighty-eight kilometres between Moscow and the Pacific port of Vladivostok, or five thousand seven hundred and seventy-one miles. Lying awake near the tracks in some remote spot, you hear trains going by all through the night with scarcely a pause.
Sitting beside the tracks and observing the point in the distance where they and the cables above them merge—the Trans-Siberian Railway is all-electric, with overhead cables like a streetcar line—you find that the tracks are empty of traffic for only five or ten minutes at a time.
Besides oil, the railway carries coal, machinery parts, giant tires, scrap iron, and endless containers saying HanJin or Sea-Land or Maersk on their sides, just like the containers stacked five stories high around the Port of Newark, New Jersey, and probably every other port in the world.
Now and then, a passenger train goes by, and, if the time is summer and the weather, as usual, hot, many shirtless passengers are hanging from the open windows with the curtains flapping beside them. Not even the most luxurious car on the Trans-Siberian Railway offers air-conditioning. Then more freight comes along, sometimes timber by the trainload. Siberian timber can be three or four feet in diameter, a size only rarely seen on logging trucks in America today.
Geologists have always liked Siberia, especially its eastern part, where a lot is going on with the earth. Well into eastern Siberia—to a north-south range of mountains roughly paralleling the Lena River Valley—you are still in North America, tectonically speaking. The North American Plate, sliding westward, meets the Eurasian Plate there, while to the south the Amursky and the Okhotsky Plates complicate the collision by inserting themselves from that direction.
All this plate motion causes seismic activity and an influx of seismologists. Eastern Siberia is among the most important places for seismic studies in the world. Paleontologists come to Siberia not for dinosaur fossils, which are not found nearly as often as in the Mongolian territory to the south, but for more recent fossils, of prehistoric bison, mammoths, rhinos, and other species that lived fifteen thousand to ten thousand years ago.
The Siberian-mammoth finds alone have been a bonanza, some of them not fossils but the actual creatures themselves, still frozen and almost intact, or mummified in frozen sediments. In the nineteenth century, discoveries of mammoth remains were so common that for a while mammoth ivory became a major export of Siberia. To astronomers, Siberia provides the advantage of skies largely untroubled by light pollution and, in some places, cloud-free for more than two hundred days a year.
Looking up at the clarity of the night in Siberia, you feel that you are in the sky yourself. Never in my life had I seen so many satellites and shooting stars.
He also mentioned a special kind of bird whose nests were so soft that they were used for socks. About two hundred and ninety years later in Siberia, I saw few or none of these marvels, except in museums, where some of the specimens are facing a second extinction from moths and general disintegration.
The main four-legged animal I encountered in Siberia was the cow. Little herds appear all the time, especially in western Siberia, grazing along the road or moving at twilight from the woods or the swamp into a glade.
Siberian cows are skinnier than the ones in America, and longer-legged, often with muddy shins, and ribs showing. Some wear bells. Herders, usually not on horseback, follow them unhurriedly. Beef in Siberian stores is gristly, tough, and expensive.
Siberian dairy products, however, are cheap and good. Korzhanskii, a revolutionary who knew the father of the Russian Revolution, V. From Siberia. Lenin went to Siberia on two separate occasions. He was sent into exile there following his arrest for revolutionary activities in St. Petersburg in December of Lenin was twenty-five then, and still using his original name, Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov.
Exile under the tsars could be a rather mild proposition, especially compared with what the Soviets later devised; during his exile Lenin received a government stipend of twelve rubles a month, which covered room and board along with extras like books.
He was able to get a lot of reading done. All in all, Siberia seems to have agreed with Lenin splendidly, and seasoned him as a political thinker. The second time Lenin was sent to Siberia he had been dead for seventeen years. After leading the revolution and maneuvering the Bolshevik state through the power struggles that followed, he suffered a series of strokes; a convalescence did not restore his health, and he died, of another stroke, in January of Embalmers and other technicians did such a skillful job that when they were done he looked better than he had in the months before he died.
To house him, the government built a temporary and then a permanent tomb on Red Square, in Moscow, where his body went on display for the crowds who filed reverently by. In , with the Germans approaching, an icon as important as Lenin could not be left at risk of destruction or capture, so the body was packed into a railroad car and shipped to the western Siberian city of Tyumen for safekeeping.
There, far from the front, it waited out the war. In , after the Allied victory, Lenin again returned from Siberia, and went back to his Red Square tomb. Like Lenin, many of the objects in museums and churches in western Russia have spent some time in Siberia.
Individual aerials and satellite dishes gradually mushroomed in the cities and small towns. Currently, in each of the large cities there are several channels that provide regional news, entertainment shows, and films free of charge.
In the s it was possible to buy audio tapes in special kiosks or shops or even leave a blank tape at the shop for the desired recording to be made. Dennis Zuev recalls his personal experiences of using tape and video recorders in the s:. When I turned 14, I dreamt of a stereo. In , I bought a Vega tape-recorder. These were produced in Berdsk and while being technically quite simple, nobody questioned their quality or functionality. In the s, locally produced stereos were available and affordable to a wide public.
Double-cassette recorders were still hard to come by and dubbing tapes was a widespread practice. Two single-cassette recorders would be linked by cable for dubbing and it took several hours to dub one tape. I made copies for myself, for my friends, and even sold some of the copies. This practice helped to socialise with friends and schoolmates with whom we exchanged music recordings; we dubbed them for each other and discussed which new ones to buy and who would buy them so we could listen to more.
But things in the s were changing very fast: in winter our family could not even think about buying a small good-quality Hi-Fi stereo in Krasnoiarsk, so I brought one home from my school exchange trip to the United States — only to discover that by summer the shops had a full stock of different foreign brands of audio-visual equipment stereos with television sets, video recorders, CD players, and CDs.
These were slowly displacing the business of tape selling kiosks and tape-dubbing studios. The street markets were at the same time still supplied mostly by the cheap China-made products of counterfeit brands such as Panasoanix , Sonic , Sonyo , etc.
However, with the development of the internet these forms of video rental and music recording have petered out to online video streaming including YouTube , torrent downloads, and MP3 file downloads. These, however, require high-speed internet, which is a privilege of urban centres and is not widely available in small district towns and villages.
The prices for technical devices and other consumer goods used to be much higher in Siberia than in Moscow until approximately , and it was common for Siberians to travel to Moscow to find a wider variety of goods at better prices.
Recent statistics demonstrate that inhabitants of Siberia now take fewer consumer loans but of larger amounts Galaguz With the increasing practice of online shopping via Ebay, Amazon and the like, it has become possible to buy diverse items at comparatively low cost online, including books, music, sports equipment, and gadgets. They were primarily used for computer games.
The computer classes in city schools became part of the normal curriculum in the s. A peculiarity of internet development in Siberia — and Russia in general — was Fidonet, a data transfer protocol that preceded the internet, based on modem-to-modem exchange of data badges usually messages during night hours, when phone calls could be made at a reduced charge.
This was a non-commercial, grass-roots initiative of individual users. The first node of Fidonet in Russia was established in Novosibirsk in early There was a Fidonet community of up to , users in Rohozinski A few years later, however, the internet prevailed.
State financed institutions caught up with this more slowly, for instance, in the Siberian Federal University wireless internet appeared in Using email and the internet on a regular basis was, for many inhabitants of Russia, the point when they started to learn some words of English, and to use the Latin English keyboard of the computer.
Number of wi-fi hotspots registered at wifi4free. The data given here provide a snapshot of the spread of wi-fi in the public sphere; since , the number of registered hotspots has grown further the website continues to be active.
Population data compiled from the Russian version of Wikipedia, based on data of the Federal State Statistics Service data of the Census on 1 October Population as of 1 October The level of penetration of the internet defined as the percentage of monthly internet users among the overall regional population is particularly high in the Far East, whereas the Siberian Federal Okrug slightly lags behind the average level ibid.
However, each location or region has its own specific properties and — generally speaking — the internet is thus far more widely and easily accessible in urban areas, despite the fact that growth rates are currently higher in the villages than in the cities cf.
According to the last Yandex report published in , the share of the rural population connected to the internet increased significantly along with an increase of the share of senior users in urban areas.
Visible decrease of the cost of mobile internet also clearly facilitated access to the internet in urban and economically developed areas Analiticheskaia gruppa TB: How do you think the preparation for the games has changed [with the development of the internet]? VZ: Immensely. Now the internet substitutes just everything. It is enough. This year we have a group in VKontakte and a website, but […] I have all reason to believe that there are only few people who look at it.
So I am thinking about closing down [the website] […] TB: So as to not waste time on it? VZ: And money! We have already mentioned its role in the purchase of tickets, music, media, and consumer goods. Moreover, the internet has also come to function as a specific element of tourist infrastructure, as is demonstrated by the case of the online couchsurfing hospitality communities along the Trans-Siberian railway Zuev a, b. Travel arrangements no longer depend on official providers of local knowledge, such as municipal information desks gorspravka or tourist information offices.
Foreign travellers can directly establish contact with locals and stay in their homes, enjoying the infrastructure that comes with hospitality.
Not only does the internet serve as a backbone of communication and information exchange, it also redefines conventions of communication. Online forums and resources cater to an enormous variety of visual and textual impulses, yet they also shape the perceptions and channel the desires of individual users. They provide a format in which individuals see others and consequently come to see themselves and present themselves.
In the following subsection, we briefly portray how the technical development of visual media have affected aesthetic conventions a strand that will be explored more deeply in Chapter 6.
Photography in the Soviet Union of the post-war period was a serious business, a quite complex procedure, and a solemn moment for those in front of the camera. Professional photographers took pictures of assemblies, collectives, school classes, weddings, anniversaries, and similar events. People appeared in festive dress and tried to take on a proper posture. The number of snapshots was comparatively small. Up to the s, holiday trips and excursions were equally documented by professional rather than amateur photographers.
Many families kept a photo album as a collective biographical record and also as an important means to present themselves to visitors. The photographs themselves could serve as mnemonic devices to remember relatives, to talk about their achievements and adventures, and to recollect genealogies. Typically, these albums contained black-and-white pictures on grey cardboard, with colour photographs appearing in the s and s. Since around the s, residents of some cities could buy the tools and chemicals needed for the processing of black-and-white photographs, though our research reveals that availability of chemicals was very unequal across different geographical areas.
The home-based processing of films became almost obsolete with the arrival of Kodak studios. The first Kodak shop in Krasnoiarsk appeared in and by the s it was equipped with monitors where one could see the images and select the pictures individually.
The mass photo studios like Kodak later gave way to digital photographs. These are no longer printed out at the previous scale, but instead they are shared and distributed by email, USB sticks, and social networking sites like VKontakte, Odnoklassniki, Instagram, Facebook or Moi Mir.
To quote M. But now I like digital. I am rather conservative […] maybe I need some time to get used [to new things], yes. EP: I mean, so do you sometimes print out your digital pictures?
M: No. No, never. Contrary to the general trend towards digitalisation, the number of small one-photographer photo studios tochka providing foto na dokumenty has increased in bigger cities to satisfy the growing needs for passport photographs in line with biometric standards. Mobile phones and later smartphones have replaced photo cameras almost entirely. In fact, up to very recently, some residents of northern villages used their mobile phones primarily for taking pictures because the absence of any GSM signal did not permit them to make phone calls cf.
Chapter 6. The Russian Far East differs in this respect, not the least because of its proximity to Japan. The booming border trade with China has also come to provide cheap alternatives for telecommunication gadgets, computers, and visual technologies. The use of mobile technology is no longer considered something extraordinary and prestigious or a conspicuous nuisance as in the s , although the material value of the object itself can still be used for status display.
The ubiquity and ease of taking images has in some ways come to debase the professional and also artistic character of earlier photographic production. This popularisation of photography has allowed it to become a prominent feature of social networking sites, which also serve as archives for sharing images, social connection, and storage. Simultaneously, art photography or video production have turned into popular hobbies and taking pictures on the streets is no longer seen as a sign of journalism, but a mundane action.
Photograph by Stephan Dudeck, August In Siberia, the most obvious aspect of this interconnection is the highly disparate availability of goods and services: in small places, this limits the number of domains in which distinction can be played out.
Similar to other countries, it is mobility itself that serves as a marker of distinction; but in a much more elementary sense than in other countries, mobility can be crucially missing.
Mobility is usually considered to enable people to pursue their goals: it is the precondition for creating and utilising social networks, for making plans come true. Where spatial mobility is limited, inventiveness and flexibility may serve as substitutes. Immobility can attain valorisations of stability, rootedness in a region, and stewardship of a place for an example, see Chapter 3.
However, there is a threshold where remoteness turns into an asset again. Glubinka can be likened with sincerity in the sense of directness and intimacy , authenticity of human interaction, a certain purity of existence, and a special magic power, as is manifest in the sustained admiration and, sometimes, romanticism that many urban residents feel for traditional livelihoods, shamanism, and life in harmony with the natural environment.
Sincerity and trust, we believe, are very persistent concerns in Russian society cf. Boym —02; Ries , —60 and they are still relevant today. We can see this concern about purity of existence as a sensibility in its own right, along with other sensibilities, aesthetic choices, political issues, and moral convictions. The domains themselves are subject to change inasmuch as sensibilities, aesthetic choices, political issues, and moral convictions grow or wane in public importance.
The promotion of idols and imaginaries holds strong sway over the formulation of collective aspirations and personal desires. They play out in opinions and decisions about familial life and social ties, about emotions and responsibilities, about work and leisure, and also about material assets and residence. In the preceding paragraph, we have spoken about the attractiveness that a life close to nature holds for some.
In this respect, certain areas of Siberia are particularly attractive. There has been an increasing willingness to relocate into a private zagorodnyi dom a house outside the city and even a revival of some long-abandoned dacha communities. This lifestyle choice has become largely possible with increased automobile ownership, as well as the internet and other technological amenities.
By the same token, the rapid increase in automobility constitutes a new challenge to Siberian cities, leading to traffic jams and contributing greatly to air pollution Kirsheva In fact, modernisation constituted the core of Soviet ideology see Chapters 1, 6, 7, and Modernity continues to be one of the key sensibilities in Russia around which individuals and communities build their life projects.
In this light, technology and infrastructure attain a tremendous symbolic importance. These shifts have created entirely new modes of presenting oneself and relating to others. The flux of visual communication, of icons and inspirations has multiplied and diversified; we may thus assume that visual modes of communication have generally gained in significance. Authorship of media content — once the exclusive claim of a small number of state-paid professionals — is now diffusely distributed among substantial parts of society.
The proliferation of digital cameras and mobile phones brings videos and self-produced images into a greater number of households. The latter is even more decisive when it comes to buying technical devices.
While nearly everybody can now afford to buy a mobile phone and personal computers are no longer a rare item in rural settlements, comparatively few people in rural settlements own a tablet or laptop. A general shift can be observed from collective towards individual means of transport. In addition, there is now a broader choice of tourist destinations. The combination of these two developments creates a new domain of distinction in which age and income, educational level, and place of residence inform choices on where to go and how to travel.
Travel for recreation within Siberia remains a popular option — exactly because of remoteness i. Some parts of Siberia and the Far East — the Altai mountains, Lake Baikal, and the Pacific shore — experience a growing influx of tourists which is subject to seasonal variation. Simultaneously, new apps such as Bla Bla Car make trips more predictable and cheaper, especially for the segment of travellers that is more accustomed to the secluded comfort of automobility rather than public transport.
At the same time the internet age has brought new developments and new types of affordances, such as social media, that allow for more convenient ways of planning individual physical movement. However, the limited availability of goods and scarcity of monetary resources remain a feature in the remoter parts of Siberia: despite the improvements of certain urban hubs, the transition to socially sustainable and inclusive mobility remains problematic and economically disadvantaged groups have only very limited access to places beyond their residence.
This may limit the range of travel destinations and reduce the material means for individual expressions of taste and lifestyle. This does not always result in a permanent relocation, however: the familial, social and spiritual bonds with Siberia as a place of birth remain strong. Agamben, Giorgio. Homo Sacer: sovereign power and bare life. Allemann, Lukas. Senter for Samiske studier, skriftserie , Allshouse, R.
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Zuev, Dennis. In: Couchsurfing Cosmopolitanisms: can tourism make a better world? On the social importance of informal ties in the socialist planned economy, see Ledeneva and Verdery Krupnyi Vyigrysh , a film produced by Khoshor Shahum in For example, in Chukotka, during the winter one has to wait for the ice to become stable to get to the airport, where one would then pray for a clear sky to take off. In this season one can use both road transport sledge, jeep, military vehicles and air transport helicopter.
Plans of cities were available, but they were based on schematic representations without topographical accuracy.
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